Delhi Sultanate ( Medieval India )

The period from the 8th to 12th century in political life in India is particularly dominated by the presence of large number of states. The bigger ones tried to establish their supremacy in northern India and the Deccan. The main contenders in this struggle for supremacy were the Pratiharas, the Palas and the Rashtrakutas. In the south the most powerful kingdom to emerge during this period was that of the Cholas. The Cholas brought about the political unification of large parts of the country but the general political picture was that of fragmentation particularly in northern India. It was in this period that India's contact with the new religion of Islam began. The contacts began late in the 7th century through the Arab traders.

Later in the early 8th century the Arabs conquered Sind. In the 10th century the Turks emerged as a powerful force in Central and West Asia and carved out kingdoms for themselves. They conquered Persia but their lives were richly influenced by Persian culture and tradition. The Turks first invaded India during the late 10th and early 11th century and Punjab came under Turkish rule. Another series of Turkish invasions in the late 12th and early 13th century led to the establishment of the Sultanate of Delhi. Within a few centauries after the rise of

Islam in Arabia it became the second most popular religion in India with followers in every part of the country.

The establishment of the Sultanate marked the beginning of a new phase in the history of medieval India. Politically it led to the unification of northern India and parts of the Deccan for almost a century. Its rulers almost from the time of the establishment of the Sultanate succeeded in separating it from the country from which they had originally come. The sultanate disintegrated towards the end of the 14th century leading to the emergence of a number of kingdoms in different parts of the country. Some of these like Bahmani and Vijaynagar kingdoms became very powerful. In society new social groups -the Turks, the Persians, the Mongols and the Afghans besides the Arabs who had settled in India. There were important changes in economic life also. Trade and crafts received a stimulus and many new towns arose as centers of administration, trade and crafts. New elements of technology were also introduced during this period.

Delhi Sultanate:

The Delhi Sultanate basically refers to the Muslim rulers who ruled India through Delhi. This basically came into existence after Mohammed Ghori captured Delhi after defeating Prithviraj. After Prithviraj was captured, the Delhi Sultanate went into the hands of one of Ghori's generals known as Qutub-ud-din Aibak. During the end of the 12th century, he established a series of rulers and this dynasty was called as the slave dynasty since the rulers had been military slaves. Read more about the history of the Delhi sultanate in India.

The extent of Delhi sultanate was till Bengal in the east and Deccan in the south. Even such a big sultanate faced constant threats from the North West and was also under pressure from internal politics within independent nobles. There was instability and unrest in the kingdom as there five dynasties that rose and fell which includes Slave dynasty, Khilji dynasty, Tughlaq dynasty, Sayyid dynasty and Lodhi dynasty. It was under the Khilji dynasty that most of South India was conquered. The territory was never fixed and depended upon the ability of the ruler as to how much was he able to conquer and control.

The effectiveness of a ruler during this time depended entirely upon his ability to conquer the places that fell near military highways and trade routes, collect land tax for revenue of the state and have firm authority over military and state governors. Agriculture and its related activities were the main source of livelihood in the kingdom but due to continued political unrest and instability, thepeasants suffered greatly. During this time, Persian language developed to a great extent at the places where power was concentrated.

1. Slave Dynasty

The Indian slave dynasty lasted from 1206 to 1290. The slave dynasty was the first Muslim dynasty to rule India. It is said that Muhammad Ghori did not have a natural heir to the throne and he the habit of treating his slaves like his own children. Thus after the death of Ghori, one of the most able slaves by the name of Qutub-ud-din Aibak descended the throne. The history of the slave dynasty begins with the rule of Qutub-ud-din Aibak. He was succeeded by two more able rulers after which the slave dynasty vanished in no time due to lack of able rulers.

 Qutub-ud-din Aibak

Qutub-ud-din Aibek laid the foundation of a new dynasty called the slave dynasty in 1206 AD. He established himself as the sultan of Delhi at Lahore. He strengthened his position through matrimonial alliances with his rivals. He gave his daughter to Iltutmish the foremost of his slaves.

The first ruler of the slave dynasty was Qutub-ud-din Aibak who ruled from 1206 to 1210. He established his capital at two places, first at Lahore and then shifted it to Delhi. It was during his reign that the construction of the famous Qutub Minar was started. He was an able ruler and was very kind and generous with his people. Due to his good nature, he earned the title of "Lakh Baksh", which means giver of thousands. He could rule for a very short time as he died in an accident in 1210. He was succeeded by his son Aram Shah but due to his incompetence, he was defeated in just one year by Iltumish.

 Iltutmish

After Qutub-ud-din Aibek his son Aram Shah succeeded the throne. He was not able to display the skill of conquests and administration shone by his forerunners. His rule was over thrown by Iltutmish with the support of the nobles. A battle followed in which Aram Shah was defeated and killed. In 1211 AD Iltutmish came to the throne. He was also known as Shamsuddin. He spent his days in retrieving the lost territories of Qutub-ud-din Aibek and also added Malwa and Sind. During the reign of Iltutmish he fought against the rival slave chiefs Yildiz and Qabacha. At the battlefield of Tarain Yildiz was defeated. Iltutmish also faced danger from the Mongols led by Chingiz Khan. In his diplomatic decision he avoided the conflict with the mighty Mongol by preventing Jalal-ud-din the ruler of Khawarism from coming to India. Another major threat to the power of Iltutmish was the independent Rajput rulers who in spite of their rivalry could pose a serious danger to the Sultanat. In 1226 AD he attacked Ranthambor and Mansor. He also occupied Ajmer, Jalor, Nagor.

In 1229 Gwalior was occupied and the fort of Kalinjar was plundered. Kannauj, Benaras and Badaun were under his dominion. In the year 1229AD the Caliph of Baghdad recognized him as Sultan. He brought order in Rohilkhand. He suppressed the revolt of Tughril Khan, the governor of Bengal. Iltutmish was the greatest ruler of 13th century India and a wise statesman. He was generous to talented people who willingly became the pillars of the central administration.

After Aram Shah, the next able ruler was Iltutmish. He ruled from 1211 to 1236. Under his strong governance, the slave dynasty was able to find a strong footing and establish itself as an important kingdom. The army was organized efficiently under Iltutmish and he also introduced a coin currency known as Tanka. It was in his reign that the construction of Qutub Minar was completed. After ruling successfully for a period of 25 years, he died, but nominated his daughter Raziya Sultan as the heir to the throne. She was an able ruler, but since she was a woman, she faced stern opposition from nobles who got her murdered.

 Raziya

Raziya came to throne by overthrowing her brother Rukn-ud-din. After elevating many Tajiks to high positions Raziya appointed Jamal-ud-din Yaqut an Ethiopian slave as superintendent of the royal horses which aroused resentment in a majority of the already disgruntled Turkish nobles. Moreover sultana began to appear unveiled in public. Though the people of Delhi supported her, hostility mounted among the iqtadars. In 1239-40 she crushed some of the rebellious iqtadars but one of them Altunia killed Yakut and took Raziya prisoner. In the meanwhile Iltutmish's third son Bahram was put on the throne by the powerful Turkish nobles. Raziya married Altunia and their combined efforts to capture Delhi failed. They were killed during an attack on their convoy.

The fall of Raziya made the clique of Turkish nobles dominant in the court and they started a scramble for supremacy. Raziya's successor Bahram Shah was weak and incompetent ruler and was over thrown by the nobles after a brief reign of two years. He was succeeded by Alauddin Masud Shah who also met the same fate of Bahram Shah. In 1246 Nasir-ud-din Mahmud the grandson of Iltutmish ascended the throne. He owed his throne to the Turkish aristocracy and the latter was bound to have tremendous influence in the administration. He places all his powers in the hands of his prime minister Balban. Balban married off his daughter to Sultan and was made Naiib-i-Mamlakat with the title of Ulugh Khan. Balban became the defacto ruler of the Sultanate. In 1266 Nasiruddin Mahmud died.

 Balban

Balban had full control over sovereignty sat on the throne of Delhi in 1266 and he adopted the name of Ghiyasuddin Balban. With his accession the line of rulers of the family of Iltutmish ended. The most serious problem which he faced soon after his succession was the restoration of law and order in Delhi and other parts of his kingdom. Balban in his attempt to curtail the power of the nobility increased the power and prestige of the Sultan. For this purpose he introduced Persian ceremonies and etiquettes in his court and allowed no manner of levity there. He was a thorough aristocrat and he never gave office to anyone except to well born men. He impressed upon the people that kingship was the vice regency of God on earth and in its dignity it was next only to prophethood. The king was the shadow of God and was the repository of divine guidance and radiance. Having consolidated his authority Balban addressed himself to the task of maintaining peace and order with his characteristic vigour. He realized that a strong army was essentially necessary to cope with the internal troubles and external dangers. Hence he reorganized his army and increased his effiency. Additional officers were appointed with higher emoluments.

Alban did not try to extend his empire although he had a powerful army. He instead concentrated on consolidating the territory already in possession. He suppressed the revolts in the Doab and Oudh and tracked down recalcitrant elements in the region of Rohilkhand. Mughals invaded again in 1279 and 1285 but was defeated and driven away. In 1286 the Mongols reappeared and this time Prince Muhammad was killed. Balban could never recover from the tragedy and died in 1286.

 Ghiyasuddin Balban

The last effective emperor of the slave dynasty was Ghiyasuddin Balban. He ruled from 1266 to 1286. During his reign, the administration was strengthened and he paid much attention to governance in his empire. The army was trained effectively to use weapons and the production of arms and other war weaponry was at its peak. This is what helped them fight against attacks by the Mongols. He died in 1286 and after him the slave dynasty collapsed.

 Rulers of the Sultanate Period

Slave Dynasty AD

1. Qutub-ud-din Aibak 1206-1210

2. Iltutmish 1210-1236

3. Raziya Sultan 1236-1239

4. Bahram Shah 1240-1242

5. Ala-ud-din Masud 1242-1246

6. Nasiruddin Mahmud 1246-1266

7. Balban 1266-1285

8. Kaikubad 1286-1290

2. Khalji Dynasty

After the decline of the Slave dynasty, the Sultanate became even more fragile and instable due to the numerous revolts and internal aggression. The Khilji dynasty started with the crowning of Jalaluddin Khilji by the nobles. This was around the year 1290 A.D. But within a few years, he was killed by his nephew Alauddin Khilji under a conspiracy hatched by the latter. The Khilji dynasty is also known by the name of Khalji dynasty. The history of Khilji dynasty is marked by brutal wars and internal conflicts among the rulers. Read on about the history of the Khalji dynasty.

The next territory that Alauddin Khilji conquered was that of Gujarat. Around 1301 A.D, he captured Ranthambhor and murdered the Rajput Hamir Deva. Then, he killed Rana Rattan Singh and captured Chittor. By 1305, he had captured territories like Malwa, Ujjain, Mandu, Dhar and Chanderi but couldn't capture Bengal. He had conquered almost entire north India by the year 1311 and established his kingdom successfully. Read about the main Khilji dynasty rulers of India.

1. Jalaluddin Firuz Khalji

The first Indian ruler of the Khilji dynasty was Jalal-ud-din Firuz Khilji, who ruled from 1290 - 1294. He invaded India and built his capital in Delhi, though he never really ruled from there. He constructed another capital at Kilokhri, and ruled from there for around 6 years. During the time Mongols attacked the country, Jalal-ud-din Khilji put up a brave front and smart negotiations made the Mongols depart. They came back however, five years later and attacked once again when his nephew ascended on the throne. Jalal-ud-din Khilji was murdered by his own nephew when he was going to visit him in Kara.

Jalaluddin Firuz Khalji was the founder of the Khalji dynasty. He came to power after the overthrow of slave dynasty. Their ascendancy is known as Khalji imperialism because with the accession of Jalaluddin on the throne of Delhi, the supremacy of the Turks ended in India. He expanded the boundaries of his empire besides his achievements include suppression of the revolt of Malik Chhaju with the governor of Oudh. He suppressed the thuggees a band of robbers and send them off peacefully to Bengal. He adopted conciliatory policy towards the Mongols. He allowed some of the Mongols to settle in India.

It was during the conquest of Bhilsa that Alauddin the nephew of Jalaluddin started realising the dream of being sultan. In 1292 AD Alauddin led an expedition to Devagiri hearing of its wealth. Devagiri was forced to pay a huge war indemnity. This helped Alauddin in buying the nobles and pleasing the soldiers who were dissatisfied by the rule of Jalaluddin. Alauddin than hatched a conspiracy and got Sultan Jalaludin killed and proclaimed himself as the sultan.

2. Alauddin Khalji

The second ruler of the Khilji dynasty was Ala-ud-din Khilji, whose real name was Juna Khan. He ruled in India from 1296-1316. He was the nephew and son-in-law of the first Khilji ruler, Jalal-ud-din Khilji. He killed Jalal-ud-din Khilji and then announced himself as the ruler of Delhi. Ala-ud-din expanded his territory into the peninsular India within a short span of time. He died on January 1316 due to an acute health condition.

In 1296 Alauddin became the sultan after Malika Jan the widow of Jalaluddin and her younger son Qadir Khan left Delhi. He also exterminated the old Balbani and Jalali nobles. The reign of Alauddin Khalji marks the zenith of the power of the Delhi Sultanate. In 1297 he set off for conquering Gujarat. He sent an expedition under Ulugh Khan and Nusrat Khan to Gujarat. On the way Ulugh Khan conquered Jaisalmer. During the plunder of the rich port of Cambay Alauddin's commander Nusrat Khan acquired a Hindu turned Muslim slave Kafur who later on rose to become a great military general and the Malik Naib of Alauddin. After the conquest of Gujarat Alauddin sent an expedition under Ulugh Khan and Nusrat Khan to Ranthambhore. However they were beaten by the Rajputs and Nusrat Khan died. Alauddin went to Ranthambhor and annexed it in 1301.

The next expedition was sent to Mewar and after the siege of 8 months he captured Chittor in 1303. The government of Chittor was put in the hands of Khizr Khan, the eldest son of Alauddin. Chittor was renamed as Khizrabad after the name of Khizr Khan. In 1305 Alauddin sent Ain-ul-Mulk Multani for the conquest of Malwa which was placed under the governorship of the latter. By the end of 1305 the whole of Northern India fell into the hands of Alauddin and he directed his attention to the conquest of Deccan.

Between 1307 and 1312 he began the southward expansion of his empire. He invaded Devagiri in 1306-07 AD. The immediate cause for this was unduly long delay in sending the annual tribute. In 1309 the Kakatiya kingdom was attacked and its ruler Pratap Rudra Deva accepted the suzerainty of Delhi and surrendered vast treasures. The next expedition was against Vir Ballala III the Hoysala ruler in 1311. His capital Dwarsamudra was captured. The whole of Deccan was forced to acknowledge the supremacy of Alauddin. His motives were to secure the immense wealth and to force the southern states to accept the suzerainty of the Sultanate. He had to face more than dozen invasions. These invasions started from the end of 1296 and continued upto 1308.The Mongols threatened not only Punjab,Multan and Sindh but even Delhi and the Ganga-Yamuna Doab. This grave crisis compelled him to take strong measures for the protection of the northwest frontier. The 20 years of his rule came to an end with his death on 2nd January 1316 AD.

3. Qutubuddin Mubarak Shah Khalji

The third and last ruler of the Khilji dynasty in India was Qutb-ud-Din Mubarak Shah. He was the weakest ruler of all and during his reign, all taxes and penalties were abolished. He released all prisoners of war who were captured after waging gruesome battles. He was ultimately murdered by Khusru Khan and this ended the Khilji dynasty in India.

A young son of the Sultan was placed on the throne and Malik Kafur acted as the regent. Malik Kafur killed other members of the Allauddin's family but he was murdered and Mubarak Khan the third son became the regent. He imprisoned Sahibuddin and ascended the throne as Qutub uddin Mubarak in the year 1316. He tried to win the good will of the people. He liberalized Alauddin's rigorous administrative policies and repealed economic regulations. All prisoners were released and harsh regulations were cancelled. The lands which were confiscated were given back to their legitimate owners. Taxes were lowered. He was under the influence of youth called Hassan who later was called Khusru Khan who conspired to kill him. Thus Khalji dynasty came to an end. Khusro tried to strike a reign of terror to control the nobles. This was resented by the nobles particularly Ghazi Malik who captured and beheaded the sultan. He ascended the throne under the title of Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq Shah.

4. Ruler of the Khalji Dynasty AD

1. Jalaluddin Firuz 1290-1296.

2. KhaljiAlauddin Khalji 1296-1316.

3. Qutubuddin Mubarak 1316-1320

3. Tughlaq Dynasty

The Tughlaqs were basically of Turkish origin and the family was essentially Muslim. Around the year 1321, Ghazi Tughlaq ascended the throne and was given the title Ghiyath al-Din Tughlaq. The Tughlaq dynasty was able to withhold its rule due to their strong allies like the Turks, Afghans and the Muslim warriors of south Asia. In the following lines, you shall find information about the history of Tughlaq dynasty and the major rulers of this dynasty. So read about the Tughluq Empire.

1. Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq:

Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq was the founder of the Tughlaq dynasty in India. His real name was Ghazi Malik and he ruled from 1320 - 1325. He was the one who founded the city of Tughlaqabad outside Delhi. He waged a gruesome battle against Khusrao Khan, who killed the last Khilji ruler. His successful defense against the Mongols made him an able ruler and the founder of a dynasty in India. He conquered many areas including eastern portion of Bengal, a huge territory.

Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq laid the foundation of the Ttughlaq Dynasty. The word Tughlaq was not the name of any tribe or clan but was the personal name of Ghiyasuddin. He had to face enormous problems as a Sultan. There were riots in various parts of the empire and the royal treasury was empty. He pursued a policy of reconciliation with the nobles and the people who were severely restricted under Alauddin. He liberalized administration in certain respects. He gave up the practice of physical torture in case of economic offences and recovery of debts. He also discarded Alauddin's system of measurement of land for the assessment of land revenue. He attempted to improve the finances of the state and perused a policy to encourage agriculture. His twin object was to increase land under cultivation and improve economic condition of the cultivators. He took keen interest in the construction of canal for irrigation and formulated famine policy to provide relief to peasants in time of drought. The state demand of revenue was fixed between 1/5th and 1/3rd of the produce. He further instructed that the land revenue should not be enhanced more than 1/11th of the estimated produce.

He continued the system of Dagh and Chehra instituted by Alauddin. He built the fortified city of Tughlaqabad and gave a new touch to the architecture of the Sultanate period. In 1321 he dispatched the crown prince Jauna Khan to re-establish Sultan's authority in the south. He annexed Warangal. Madurai and Bengal.

2. Mohammad Bin Tughlaq

One of the most controversial rulers in India, Mohammed bin Tughlaq was the successor of Ghazi Tughlaq. The empire was spread and his rule grew. He was a brilliant person who had full command over mathematics and medicine. Yet, he was considered crazy by those who were there in his court. He was known to mete out very cruel and brutal punishments to people who were found guilty of even small mistakes. He shifted his capital from Delhi to a place in the outskirts known as Daulatabad which harmed his reputation amongst policy makers.

Jauna Khan ascended the throne in 1325 AD with the title of Mohammad Bin Tughlaq. He ruled up to 1351. He was a profound scholar of Persian, a penetrating critic, a litterateur of repute. He was a great scholar of Persian and Arabic. He faced many revolts and rebellions. The first of these revolts included his attempt to consolidate his empire by curbing the rebellions of 1327 by his cousin Bahauddin Garsharp in the Deccan and other of Kishulu Khan the governor of Multan and Sind in 1328. One of the much condemned experiments of the Sultan was the transfer of capital from Delhi to Devagiri (1327). The transfer was attempted primarily due to two reasons -for its central location and secondly its close proximity to the south which was a newly conquered region. The transfer of capital involved the shifting of the army, officials, servants, tradesmen, court and shift of population. There was a widespread resentment against the Sultan who decided to retransfer the capital to Delhi. The order of going back to the old capital caused much distress to the people. Another of his novel and daring experiments was the introduction of the token currency of bronze coins in place of silver tanka in 1329-30. The value of the token coins was deemed to be equal to a silver coin. The main reason for this measure was the scarcity of silver. This measure proved useful in the beginning but later on it caused serious problems. People soon began to manufacture counterfeits of bronze in large numbers. There was a surfeit of coins in circulation. This naturally led to its depreciation and most people began to prefer copper tankas for payments and silver or gold issues for receipts. The Sultan was compelled to withdraw the token currency. He offered to exchange all the token coins for the silver coins resulting in huge losses to the treasury. He planned an expedition for the conquest of Khurasan and Iraq.

He raised an army of 3,70,000 soldiers and gave it a whole year's salary in advance. But the army did not leave for the expedition and was disbanded. The scheme was abandoned when the Sultan learnt that the conditions in Iraq had improved and was not conducive to an expedition. Towards the end of his reign the sultan increased the land revenue in the doab. He decided to enhance the land tax in the doab because of richness of its soil. Doab was facing total famine which was followed by plague. The Sultan raised the tax from 5 to 10%. Therefore the peasants instead of paying the taxes abandoned their lands and adopted highway robbery. The tax collectors continued to collect taxes by oppression. It resulted in extensive revolts. Mohammad Bin Tughlaq died in 1351. The whole of south India became independent during his life time and three major independent states- the empire of Vijaynagar, the Brahmani kingdom and the Sultanate of Madura were founded in the territories of the sultanate of the south.

3. Firoz Tughlaq

Feroz Shah Tughlaq was the successor of Mohammed Bin Tughlaq. Feroz Shah was a caring ruler unlike Mohammed bin Tughlaq. He made sure that people in his kingdom were happy and heard out their problems patiently. However, he was not militarily strong and could not sustain any sort of external attacks or aggression. Feroz Shah breathed his last in the year 1388 and after that the Tughlaq dynasty faded away in no time.

4. Later Tughlaqs

Firoz Tughlaq was succeeded by his grandson who took up the title of Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq Shah II. Within a year of his accession he fell victim to intrigue and was beheaded in early 1389. For the next five years Sultans- Abu Bakr, Muhammad Shah and Alauddin Sikandar Shah ruled. In 1390 Nasiruddin entered Delhi and enthroned himself. He was the last sultan of the dynasty and ruled from 1390-1412. During his reign Timur the Mongol leader of Central Asia invaded India. After plundering Delhi he returned to Samarkand. On his way back he plundered Firozabad, Kangra, Meerut and Jammu. Khizr Khan was appointed governor of Multan, Lahore and Dipalpur. Timur's invasion dealt a fatal blow to the Tughlaq dynasty and the Sultanate of Delhi. In 15th century the Sultanate completely disintegrated and numerous provincial kingdoms emerged in various parts of the country.

5. Rulers of the Tughlaq Dynasty:

1. Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq Shah 1320-1325

2. Mohammad Bin Tughlaq 1325-1351

3. Firuz Tughlaq 1351-1388

4. Later Tughlaq 1388-1414

4. The Saiyyid Dynasty

After the Tughlaq dynasty disintegrated, the Sayyid dynasty rose to power. They were essentially the rulers of the Delhi Sultanate of India and reigned from 1414 to 1451. The history of the Sayyid dynasty is not clearly known but they claimed to be the descendants of Prophet Mohammed. The Sayyid Empire was formed amidst chaos when there was no figure of authority to control Delhi. The Sayyid dynasty had four basic rulers.

1. Khizr Khan:

Khizr Khan was not only the founder of the Saiyyid Dynasty but also its ablest ruler. Khizr Khan ruled from 1414-1421. He was known to be an able administrator and was very soft natured. He never resorted to bloody battles until it was absolutely necessary. It was his kind and docile nature that did not let him acquire many kingdoms during his reign. He defeated the Hindus of Daob, Kalithar and Chandwar since they had stopped paying tributes. Though he didn't wage many battles during his reign, he was busy suppressing revolts in different parts of his kingdom. He could not come up with many great reforms but still he was greatly respected and loved by his subjects.

Khizr Khan did not rule as a sovereign ruler but professed to rule as the deputy of Timur's son and successor. He assumed the title of Shah and got the Khutba read in his name. In 1412 he conquered Gujarat, Gwalior and Jaunpur. In 1416 he defeated Bayana and in 1421 he attacked Mewat. Due to the illness he died in the year 1421. He was succeeded by his son Mubarak Shah in 1421 who ruled till 1434. He was succeeded by his son Muhammad Shah in 1434 who ruled till 1445 AD. He remained in his capital sunk in indolence and pleasure. He was succeeded by his son Alauddin Alam Shah 1445-51. He was the weakest ruler of the Saiyyid Dynasty. He was deposed by Bahlol Lodhi, the powerful governor of Lahore and Sirhind who founded the Lodhi dynasty.

2. Mubarak Shah

After the death of Khizr Khan, his son Mubarak Shah succeeded him on the throne. Like his father, Mubarak Shah was a wise man and an efficient ruler and remained on the throne from 1421-1434. He used his resources carefully and to the fullest. He was a devout Muslim and cared for his subjects. He was not quite able to possess many areas and kingdoms during his rule and kept suppressing revolts like his father. The city of Mubarakabad was founded by him in the year 1433.

3. Muhammad Shah

After the death of Mubarak Shah, his brother's son Muhammad Shah succeeded him on the throne since Mubarak Shah did not have a son. Muhammad Shah ruled from 1434-1444. He was not an able ruler and misused his power and position of authority. He lost the trust and affection of his nobles and royal force who had freed him from his captors. He was lethargic and lazy ruler who just wanted to live his life in pleasure.

4. Alauddin Alam Shah

After the death of Muhammad Shah in 1444, his son took over the throne under the title of Alam Shah. During the year 1447, he visited a place called Baduan and loved it so much that he decided to stay there forever. Till 1451, Delhi was ruled by Buhlul Lodhi. Alam Shah ruled Baduan till he died in the year 1478. with his death the Sayyid dynasty came to end.

5. Rulers of the Saiyyid Dynasty:

1. Khizr Khan 1414-1421

2. Mubarak Shah 1421-1434

3. Muhammad Shah 1434-1445

4. Alauddin Alam Shah 1445-1450

5. Lodhi Dynasty

The Lodi dynasty in India arose around 1451 after the Sayyid dynasty. The Lodhi Empire was established by the Ghizlai tribe of the Afghans. They formed the last phase of the Delhi Sultanate. There were three main rulers in the history of Lodi dynasty. All three of them have been discussed in detail in the following lines.

1. Buhlul Khan Lodi

Buhlul Khan Lodi (1451-1489) was the founder of the Lodi dynasty in India and the first Afghan ruler of Delhi. He ruled for 39 years. His links were with a famous Afghan clan known as Shahurbel. He established his suzerainty by defeating and capturing the jagirdar of Mewat, Sambha, Koel, Khari, Bhogaon, Etawah and Gwalior. He annexed the Jaunpur kingdom in his empire. In the last years of his life he invaded Gwalior and obtained 80 lakh tankas from the ruler. He was an Afghan noble who was a very brave soldier. Buhlul Khan seized the throne without much resistance from the then ruler, Alam Shah. His territory was spread across Jaunpur, Gwalior and northern Uttar Pradesh. During his reign in 1486, he appointed his eldest son Barbak Shah as the Viceroy of Jaunpur. Though he was an able ruler, he really couldn't decide as to which son of his should succeed him as the heir to the throne.

2. Sikandar Lodi

After the death of Buhlul Khan, his second son Nizam Shah succeeded him as the king. He was given the title of Sultan Sikander Shah. He was ablest of three Lodhi rulers. In 1504 he established the city of Agra. He conquered south Bihar in 1494-95 and concluded a treaty of friendship with Alauddin Husain Shah the ruler of Bengal.

He introduced the measurement of land and started a measurement known as Sikandar Gaz. He tried to propagate Islam and crush Hinduism. He died at Agra in 1517. He was a dedicated ruler and made all efforts to expand his territories and strengthen his empire. His empire extended from Punjab to Bihar and he also signed a treaty with the ruler of Bengal, Alauddin Hussain Shah. He was the one who founded a new town where the modern day Agra stands. He was known to be a kind and generous ruler who cared for his subjects.

3. Ibrahim Lodhi

The last Lodhi ruler was Ibrahim Lodhi. In 1526 Ibrahim Lodhi fought with Babur the battle of Panipat. In this fierce battle Ibrahim Lodhi was defeated. The Sultanate came to an end and a new power Mughals came to rule India.

Ibrahim Lodhi was the son of Sikander who succeeded him after his death. Due to the demands of the nobles, his younger brother Jalal Khan was given a small share of the kingdom and was crowned the ruler of Jaunpur. However, Ibrahim's men assassinated him soon and the kingdom came back to Ibrahim Lodhi. Ibrahim was known to be a very stern ruler and was not liked much by his subjects. In order to take revenge of the insults done by Ibrahim, the governor of Lahore Daulat Khan Lodhi asked the ruler of Kabul, Babur to invade his kingdom. Ibrahim Lodhi was thus killed in a battle with Babur who was the founder of the Mughal dynasty in India. With the death of Ibrahim Lodhi, the Lodhi dynasty also came to an end.

4. Rulers of the Lodhi Dynasty:

1. Bahlol Lodhi 1451-1489

2. Sikander Lodhi 1489-1517

3. Ibrahim Lodhi 1517-1526

6. First Battle of Panipat

The first battle of Panipat was actually the event that marked the end of the Lodhi dynasty and the beginning of the Mughal dynasty in India. The 1st battle of Panipat was fought between the last ruler of Lodhi dynasty, Ibrahim Lodhi and the ruler of Kabul, Babur. By 1525, Babur had captured the whole of Punjab and then he proceeded towards Delhi. The history of the first battle of Panipat was an important milestone that was to change the very face of history in India. This historical event is discussed in detail below.

After capturing Punjab, Babur proceeded towards Delhi to meet Ibrahim Lodhi. The Sultan got the message that Babur was proceeding towards Delhi with a huge army and strong artillery. But Ibrahim Lodhi's army was much bigger and he had war elephants. But Babur defeated the army with organization and skilled maneuvering. This historic battle of Panipat took place on April 21st (1526) at the place called Panipat which is located in modern day Haryana. This place has been the site many important battles in the history of India.

Though Ibrahim Lodhi had elephants and huge army, he did not know how to control them. Babur had guns and he used them to scare the elephants. As a result the elephants went out of control and trampled Lodhi's own army. He lost a lot of soldiers like that. Ibrahim Lodhi was finally abandoned by his generals and advisors and was left to die on the battlefield. This battle was the turning point in the history of Delhi as it marked the beginning of one of the most important empires in India, the Mughal dynasty.

7. Indo Islamic Culture

With the coming of the Mughals in India and the Turkish rule, there were many developments and changes in the Indian culture. Not just culture, there were major developments in architecture and art. The indo Islamic culture was a blend of Hinduism and Islam. It was neither strict Hindu nor strict Islam. The history of Indo Islamic culture is very interesting and an important milestone in the historical legacy of India. The Indo Islamic architecture can be broadly classified into two main categories:

 Delhi or the Imperial Style

 Mughal Architecture

The former was developed by the Sultans of Delhi while the latter was inspired from Islamic Architecture of Central Asia and the Hindu Architecture of India. The indo Islamic style was unique and its typical characteristics were spaciousness and width. The landscape was dominated by mosques and the dome became an inseparable part of any architectural monument. The dome was inspired by Hindu temples that had a circular top called "Kalash".

The monuments were decorated with calligraphy and intricate designs. A very important symbol of the indo-Islamic architecture was the magnificent tomb or burial chambers for the emperors. It was developed and refined during the Mughal era. The tombs were surrounded by beautiful gardens and the grave used to be placed below the memorial plaque. One of the most famous examples of a tomb is the Taj Mahal.

Though this form of architecture started before the end of the Turkish rule, it was under Emperor Akbar that Mughal architecture got its due importance and fame. Akbar concentrated on using red sandstone for most of the monuments. He blended some unique foreign styles with the Mughal architecture like combining, high minarets, gardens, pillars, etc. with the main monument. The monuments were lavishly decorated with precious metals like gold, silver and precious stones like diamonds, emeralds, rubies, etc. some other famous examples of the indo Islamic architecture are Qutub Minar, Alai Darwaza, Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque, Tughlaqabad Fort, Fatehpur Sikri, Agra Fort, Taj Mahal, Red Fort of Delhi etc.

8. Administration of the Sultanate

The government established by the Turks was a compromise between Islamic political ideas and institutions on the one hand and the existing Rajput system of government on the other. Consequently many elements of the Rajput political system with or without changes became part and parcel of the Turkish administration in India. Most of the Sultans kept up the pretence of regarding the caliph as the legal sovereign while they themselves were the caliph's representatives. Most of them included the name of the caliph in the Khutba and the Sikka and adopted titles indicative of their subordination to the caliph.

Three rulers emphasised their own importance. Balban used to say that after the Prophet the most important office was that of the sovereign and called himself the Shadow of God. Muhmmad bin Tughlaq assumed this style during the early years of his reign and although Balban had retained the name of the caliph in the Khutba and Sikka, he made no mention of caliph anywhere. Despite all this neither of them had the power to call himself the caliph. The only person who had done this was Qutubuddin Mubarak Khalji. Only three Sultans sought and secured a mansur or letter of investiture from the caliph. The first among them was Iltutmish. Next Muhmmad bin Tughlaq tried to pacify the ulema by securing an investiture from the Abbasid Caliph in Egypt.

After him Firoz also sought and secured it twice. According to Islamic ideals essential attributes of a sovereign required that he should be a male adult suffering from no physical disability, a freeborn Muslim having faith in Islam and acquainted with its doctrines and he should be elected by the people. There were several violations of the prescribed criteria as Raziya was raised to throne despite her being a woman. Minority proved no bar in the case of Mohammad bin Tughluq. Alauddin Khalji admitted his ignorance of the Sharia but nobody questioned him.

In the framing of new rules and regulations the authority of the Sultan was circumscribed and every ruler could not govern the kingdom in complete disregard of the advice of the ulema or theologians as Alauddin Khalji and Muhammad Tughluq had been able to do. The power of the nobility also blunted their authority to some extent. When there was a weak ruler on the throne the nobles and the ulema particularly dominated him but during the reign of Balban, Alauddin Khalji and Muhammad Tughluq these checks proved ineffective. The sultans were not powerful enough to rule the land in complete disregard of the sentiments of the Hindus.

The Sultan dominated the central government as he was the legal head of the state and acted as the chief executive and the highest court of appeal. The Sultan was assisted by number of ministers. The slave dynasty sultans constituted four ministers at the top level these were held by Wazir, Ariz I mamalik, the diwan -i-insha and the diwan-i-risalat. After sometime an extraordinary officer of the state styled as naib-ul-mulk or malik naib the regent came into existence. When the sultanate was well established two more departmental heads were raised to the status of central ministers sadr-us-sadur and the diwan-i-qaza. The commander of the royal army next after the sultan, the crown prince and above mentioned ministers constituted the nucleus of the council of advisers called majilis-i-am or majilis-i-khawat which comprised the most trusted and the highest officers of the state.

The wazir also styled as vakil was the prime minister and his department was called the diwan-i-wizarat. He was head of the finance dept and usually held overall charge of the entire administrative set up. The head of the army establishment or the ministry of defence was the diwan -i-arz. He was responsible for the organization and maintenance of the royal army and exercised disciplinary control over it. The department of correspondence and records of the royal court was called diwan-i-insha; it was held under the charge of central minister known as dabir-i-mamlik, dabir-i-khas or amir munshi.

The diwan-i-risalat constituted the fourth pillar of the imperial administration of the sultanate. Under slave dynasty the head of the dept was sadr-us-sadur who was primarily a minister for ecclesiastical affairs. During the time of Alauddin Khalji diwan-i-risalat dept was taken out of the hand of the sadr and renamed diwan-i-riyasat. Its primary function was to implement the economic regulations issued by the sultan and control the markets and prices. Barid-i-mamalik; vakil -i-dar, amir-i-barbak, amir-i-hajib, amir-i-majlis, amir-i-shikar, kotwal etc were other important officials of the time.

1.Provincial System:

The provincial government of the sultanate was not well developed. The provincial governors of the region were usually called walis or muqtas. The provincial government was an exact replica of the central government. In some provinces the sultan appointed an imperial officer called sahib-i-diwan for controlling the provincial revenues and he exercised a sort of check on the powers and activities of the governor. The provinces were further divided into shiqs or districts which were governed by shiqdars. Each shiq comprised a few parganas which was an aggregate of villages. At the lowest ladder were the villages which were governed by their local panchayats.

2.Judicial System:

The sultans implemented shariat or the Islamic law of crime and punishment the main sources of which were the Quran, the Hadis and Ijma. The ecclesiastical cases were separated from the criminal and civil suits. The durbar of the sultan constituted the highest civil and criminal court of justice which took original as well as appellate cases. Below the sultan there was the court of qazi-i-quzat or the chief justice of the empire. Muhtasib the censor of public morals acted as police cum judge in the observance of the canon law by the Muslims. The village panchayats enjoyed the sanction of the state to administer justice according to the local tradition, customs and the personal law of the populace. The penal code was severe, physical torture and capital punishment constituted an essential part of it.

3. Military organization:

The sultanate was military dictatorship; it owed its genesis to the military victory of the Turks over the Indian rulers in the 12th and 13th centuries and its strength and stability depended primarily on its strong and efficient army. The army organization of the sultans was based on feudal principles which carried all the inherent defects of the system with it.